Section 4

Chapter 14 discusses the concept and evolution of human performance improvement. Several sections of chapter 14 present a variety of non-instructional solutions to performance problems. Identify a performance problem in your area of work and identify non-instructional solutions that may help solve the problem.

I think this is about business after I first saw this question. But after I read this chapter, I realized that human performance is important in all the departments that are formed of people. Also the concerns of senior executives about improving human performance are well founded, in light of driving forces that have created a shortage of the right people in the right places with the right skills at the right time. It seems that there are some mistakes that the leaders may make: They may view human performance solutions as a sort of “art” and then actions that are subjective, with no assurance that the effects of their actions can be measured or even detected; they may take actions that are only point solutions, which lack the power to penetrate throughout the entire human performance system; they may take actions that have a positive effect at one place in the system but unintended negative consequences elsewhere in the system. And I agree with the book that people work in a complex, adaptive system—like the human body—and no part of it can be understood, or fully optimized, without reference to all other parts. I did not find such non-instructional solutions for it, but from all I learned and I have been in my life I will say that like we have all tutors in our mathlab, and we are not all-rounded. We can put two different kinds of tutors in one time sheet and they are complementary, which is the best way to solve the problems that will happen in the lab.

Chapter 15 presents performance support systems. Define performance support systems and explain how a performance support system might (or might not) help solve the problem you identified above.

What is performance support system? The integration of different tools to help the user perform a task is the key feature of performance support systems and is part of most definitions. Laffey (1994) defined performance support systems as "systems [that] are built to integrate resources and tools and to facilitate working on complex tasks" (p. 1). Raybould (1990b) also includes the concept of integration in his definition: "An electronic Performance Support System (PSS) is a computer-based system that improves worker productivity by providing on-the-job access to integrated information, advice and learning experiences"(p. 4). McGraw (1994) defines a PSS as "an integrated tool suite that supports the user of a complex system by providing embedded assistance within the system itself" (p. 1). In summary, a PSS is a system that provides the user with information, guidance, and learning experiences where ever and whenever a user needs it. (Performance Support Systems for Education and Training: Could this be the next generation? Stephen Desrosiers, University of Hoston-Clear Lake, Georgia State University.)

I guess, from the definition above, I can find a way to solve the problem. Since we can provide all us skilled part in the math and put all information together, then follow the guidance which is what I think about that combine two of us whose knowledge are complementary. And after apply for a while, we will see the advanced part and insufficient part of it, then improve this design. I think I will make sense if we would like to try.

Chapter 16 explains knowledge management: the way we manage information, share that information, and use it to solve organization problems. Organizations, such as schools, accumulate a great deal information/data, which must be organized in a way that we can make sense of it in order to use for making decisions. What knowledge would help solve the problem you identified above and how would that knowledge need to be collected and managed to help facilitate problem solving?

Knowledge management comprises a range of strategies and practices and used in an organization to identify, create, represent, distribute, and enable adoption of insights and experiences. Such insights and experiences comprise knowledge, either embodies in individuals or embedded in organizations as processes or practices.

As I learned, knowledge is the foundation of all we can do. So I agree that we should manage information, share that information and use it to solve organization problems. But I also notice that knowledge is relatively difference to different people, so I realize the importance of collecting information. As what I said before, I prefer to find two tutors who have complementary knowledge.

Chapter 17 describes types of informal learning. What informal learning experiences have you participated in at your organization? Could those informal learning experiences be shared with others? Could the knowledge gained in those settings be codified and managed? And should it be managed or should the informal experiences be replicated or broadened to include others?

Informal learning is one of three forms of learning defined by the organization for economic co-operation and development. The other two are formal and non-formal learning. Informal learning occurs in a variety of places, such as at home, work, and through daily interactions and shared relationships among members of society. For many learners this includes language acquisition, cultural norms and manners. Informal learning for young people is an ongoing process that also occurs in a variety of places, such as out of school time, in youth programs at community centers and media labs.

I did not experience any of this informal learning, but I am really hoping that I could try it once. Actually, I heard that there are children in kindergarten in China are being abused by teachers. I was shocked at first time and then ashamed, finally desperate. I cannot image that my child in a kindergarten where should be a paradise for children is not even safety. I wish I could teach my children myself, but then I realize that children need to be with friends, I cannot deprive their right that choosing study and play with friends or stay at home study with me or internet. I believe that this is a ubiquitous problem in China, we cannot afford that our children in a unsafe environment, we cannot take care them while both mother and father have to make a living. Even though we have internet and other media to instruct knowledge nowadays, we still face this problem in China. For me, I truly hope that one day our children could have a better future, but at first I hope they can grow up safely.

Section 3

1.    Chapter 10 discusses evaluation in instructional design and provides you with two evaluation models, the CIPP and Kirkpatrick models for evaluation. Search for at least two other models used for evaluation and summarize these models. Describe how you would use them to evaluate your instruction.

I did not find CIPP on the book (mine is 2nd edition), so I searched it on the internet.
CIPP evaluation model: One very useful approach to educational evaluation is known as the CIPP, or Context, Input, Process, Product approach, developed by Stufflebeam (1983). This provides a systematic way of looking at many different aspects of the curriculum development process. There is a risk, however, that it may be directed only by ‘experts’ or ‘outsiders’, and for this reason it is vital to identify ways in which various stakeholders can be meaningfully involved.

After reading this definition, I am impressed that this method looks simple but not easy. There are only four elements in the process, but every single item includes at least tens of specific aspects. So I think this is the advantage of CIPP model, also the disadvantage of it. It requires experts who are familiar with this model can only deal with it, I mean it is not convenient for me to understand and use it in the real life.

Kirkpatrick’s Four-Level Model of Evaluation: Kirkpatrick’s model was published initially in 1959. His purpose for proposing the model was to stimulate training directors to increase their efforts to evaluate their training programs. The four steps of evaluation consist of:
Level 1: Reactions—how well did the learners like the learning process?
Level 2: Learning—what did they learn?
Level 3: Behavior—what changes in job performance resulted from the learning process?
Level 4: Results—what are the tangible results of the learning process in terms of reduced cost, improved quality, increased production, efficiency, etc.?

I read this conclusion on the internet, and I think it makes more sense. There are four apparent levels and each level gives a clear explanation. Especially, I prefer that the author wants to replace behavior with performance. I think we are focusing on students’ performance instead of their behavior at often time. Since we cannot spend all of our spirit on one student, therefore, focusing on their performance is more effective.

ADDIE Model: The ADDIE model is actually a frame work that lists the generic process traditionally used by instructional designers and training developers. The five phases—Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation, and Evaluation—represent a dynamic, flexible guideline for building effective training and performance support tools. It is an Instructional Systems Design model. Most of the current instructional design models are variations of the ADDIE process; other models include the Dick &Carey and Kemp ISD models. One commonly accepted improvement to this model is the use of rapid prototyping. This is the idea of receiving continual or formative feedback while instructional materials are being created. This model attempts to save time and money by catching problems while they are still easy to fix.

This is also a model that looks clearly to me. I have no idea about how it can save time and money, but I do think I can handle this model. There are five phases, analysis which is providing a background to design, and design which is a blueprint to implementation, development is to perfect the implementation, and finally evaluation. That is my thinking about ADDIE model.

TIGER Model: The Teacher Instructional Growth for Effectiveness and Results (TIGER) Model is an alternative teacher evaluation process developed by The Association of Independent and Municipal Schools (AIMS).  It was truly developed by practitioners for practitioners after a deep consideration of current trends and issues within teacher evaluation. The model is designed to promote teacher growth and to ensure all teachers provide quality instruction that aligns with school, district, and state goals.  TIGER is a differentiated model of teacher support that provides for “stages” of teacher development, as well as, both a formative and summative process of evaluation.  The model includes a ‘coaching’ component for Stage One and a leadership component for Stage Three, with an emphasis on professional learning communities throughout.

Honestly, I do not really understand this model, which I found it on the internet when I put “evaluation models”. This is more like a process not a model. I guess this is because it is for teachers’ evaluation specifically, not for instruction.

In my opinion, I prefer Kirkpatrick’s model and ADDIE model. No need to say that they still have some place to improve or develop, but I guess I will use it personally. For me, I think Kirkpatrick’s model is more focusing on students’ performance. I would like to try it sometimes. First of all, if I want to show them what is the relationship that between a point and a circle, I would like to show them a game with a ball on the ground where draw a big circle on it. And to see if they are interested to it, then we are about to learn the definition of the relationships. After that, we are going to use in the real life, see if a ball on the line or not. Finally, the results, I usually forget this part. Actually, after the real problem I will step over this part because we will still have exams to test the results.

2.      Reflect on what other questions that instructional design evaluation should address besides whether the instructional design leads to comparable amounts of learning and learner satisfaction as traditional methods. What else would be useful to know?

I think evaluation means to be a measurement to get the valid feedback. As we are focusing on the grades, I do not think this evaluation works as it used to be. Especially in China, teachers care whether their students can get into a famous college or not, instead of their performance. Teachers want they can be more competitive in the study field, they ignore the knowledge that students need to learn for the real life. Learning is boring, so we cannot make it more boring. Are they interested in it is a new point should be included in the evaluation I think.

3.      Chapter's 12 & 13 focus on project management and how to manage projects when resources are scarce. You have been assigned to develop a series of professional development sessions focusing on technology use in the classroom for teachers during a time of economic decline. How will you use Situational Leadership to facilitate this project and manage scarce resources?

In the late 1960s, Hersey and Blanchard developed Situational Leadership. Since then, it has gone through modifications and has evolved into a four-phase comprehensive model for developing leadership skills and influencing individuals. It is based on three factors: the amount of guidance and direction a leader gives, the amount of socioemotional support a leader provides, and the readiness level that followers exhibit in performing a specific task, function, or objective.

According to this frame and all I read on the book, I will first suggest guidance that goals for the target. Say if I want to teach a class and I will give students a target. And then I will assign students to prepare the material that this project needed. Thirdly, I will see what they showed to me, which is their performance. At last, I want their feedback and we will evaluate together. This is all I thinking about.

Rewrite Section 2

1. Epistemology (the study of what and how we come to know) is discussed in multiple chapters in this section. Distinguish epistemology from instructional methods or theories. What are the differences between theories, methods, or models of learning and epistemologies or underlying beliefs about ways of knowing?

Distinguish epistemology from instructional methods or theories.

Epistemology is the branch of philosophy that is concerned with the nature of knowledge and understanding—their foundations, assumptions, and validity.

Instructional design is a system of procedures for developing education and training programs in a consistent and reliable fashion. Instructional design is a complex process that is creative, active, and iterative.

It is apparent that different epistemologies have different psychological frameworks, which in turn have different implications for instructional design. That is what I learn from the chart on the book. By design, instructional materials and methods should reflect beliefs and evidence about the nature of learning and understanding in ways that are consistent with key foundations and assumptions.

In my word, instructional design is depended on epistemology, I mean since epistemology is a kind of psychology and it is kind of mental control, and instructional design is more like a physical activities. Or say, instructional design is a method to make our mental thinking comes true.

What are the differences between theories, methods, or models of learning and epistemologies or underlying beliefs about ways of knowing?

In China, we have an old saying, adjust measures to local conditions. I guess I can use it in here. If learning is a pyramid, theories are on the top and methods are on the bottom. I am not saying that methods are not important, but it is more like a nerve ending. It is like a human body, all mental command has to through it then comes true (I have no idea am I making sense of it.).

2. Chapters in this section present two contrasting epistemic stances: positivist and relativist. However, a third stance, the contextualist or hermeneutical, is also widely recognized. This stance falls somewhere between the strictly objectivist/positivist beliefs about knowing and the purely subjectivist/relativist stance. While designers and educators with a positivist stance generally apply behaviorist principles to the design and development of instruction, those with either a contextualist or relativist epistemological framework employ constructivist theories and methods. However, relativists ascribe to radical constructivist approaches, while contextualists draw upon social constructivist theories and models. Based on what you’ve read about positivist and relativist epistemologies, as well as behaviorist and constructivist approaches, try to more fully describe a contextualist epistemology. How might it differ from either a relativist or positivist stance, and how might social constructivism differ from either behaviorist or radical constructivist approached to learning and instruction?

Based on what you’ve read about positivist and relativist epistemologies, as well as behaviorist and constructivist approaches, try to more fully describe a contextualist epistemology.

I notice that the chart on the book page 72, which mentioned that there are two kinds of epistemological perspectives: positivism and relativism. And by the hint above, that contextualist is between these two perspectives. Therefore, I guess there are two possible characteristics: 1. Knowledge exists independent of the learner; truth is contextual; 2. Knowledge is constructed by the learner; there is an absolute truth. From what I have learned, I would like to go with the second one. Because I think knowledge is different with different explanation; nevertheless, truth is always there, no matter who said it.

How might it differ from either a relativist or positivist stance?

This is what I found in the internet, in epistemology, contextualism is the treatment of the word 'knows' as context-sensitive…epistemic contextualists argue that the word 'knows' is context sensitive, expressing different relations in some different contexts. From this explanation, I conclude that contextualisms are still admit that there is a truth exists absolutely, but how to get it is variable. That is why they are differing from relativisms and positivisms.

How might social constructivisms differ from either behaviorist or radical constructivist approached to learning and instruction?

Behaviorists believe that learning is mediated by relationships among external stimuli, overt responses, and reinforcement principles.

Social constructivism is a sociological theory of knowledge that applies the general philosophical constructivism into social settings, wherein groups construct knowledge for one another, collaboratively creating a small culture of shared artifacts with shared meanings. (From Wikipedia)

And radical constructivist with the word “radical”, I will take it as an extreme way to approach to learning and instruction.

After comparing these three points, I found that social constructivism is gentler. Also, social constructivism is depending on learner, so it is felt more comfortable by learners.

3. Differing epistemic stances lead to differing approaches to learning and instruction, and ultimately to problem-solving. Explain differences in problem-solving when approached from behaviorist and constructivist perspectives. How do the approaches differ in both the nature of the problem to be solved and in facilitating the problem solving process? Finally, what effect might these differences have on learner motivation?

Explain differences in problem-solving when approached from behaviorist and constructivist perspectives.

Behaviorists believe that learning is mediated by relationships among external stimuli, overt responses, and reinforcement principles. And for constructivists, objects and events have no absolute meaning.

While problem solving as a process has two critical attributes. First, problem solving requires the mental representation of the situation in the world; second, problem solving requires some active manipulation of the problem space.

Combining these critical points, I conclude that behaviorist is more proper with story problem, because first of all, it satisfies that solution is clear, second, it is constrained to predefined elements. And constructivist perspectives satisfy several types of problem solving. So, I guess behaviorist perspectives are more specific, and the constructivist perspectives are more general.

How do the approaches differ in both the nature of the problem to be solved and in facilitating the problem solving process?

I failed to locate it on the book, so I can only answer this question myself. I guess the difference between these two approaches is the concern of learning. While behaviorists consider that problem solving is a way to confirm the truth, which is already there. Constructivism perspectives treat problem solving a process to get the truth, which you have to find it yourself.

What effect might these differences have on learner motivation?

Honestly I will consider the differences are intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation. While, what are the definitions of these two motivation types? According to Deci, intrinsic motivation occurs when one engages in a task for which there is no apparent reward except the pleasure of engaging in the activity. In contrast, extrinsically motivated individuals engage in tasks for rewards associated with successful accomplishment. Therefore, I think a behaviorism perspective approaches an extrinsic motivation and constructivism perspectives approach an intrinsic motivation. They are all from their definition.

Section 2

1. Epistemology (the study of what and how we come to know) is discussed in multiple chapters in this section. Distinguish epistemology from instructional methods or theories. What are the differences between theories, methods, or models of learning and epistemologies or underlying beliefs about ways of knowing?

Part A

Epistemology is the branch of philosophy that is concerned with the nature of knowledge and understanding—their foundations, assumptions, and validity. Inasmuch as positivists believe that knowledge exists independent of the individual learner, it follows that they generally employ instructional methods designed to transmit knowledge, so as to help individuals “learn” or duplicate it. Conversely, inasmuch as relativists believe that knowledge is not absolute but rather what the individual constructs, they typically rely on instructional methods that are intended to promote the judgments and evaluations that facilitate personal interpretations and refine understanding. It is apparent that different epistemologies have different psychological frameworks, which in turn have different implications for instructional design. By design, instructional materials and methods should reflect beliefs and evidence about nature of learning and understanding in ways that are consistent with key foundations and assumptions.

Part B 

In most psychological theories, learning is defined as “a persisting change in human performance or performance potential”, with performance potential referring to the fact that what is learned might not always be exhibited immediately. Learning is defined further by now it is thought to occur. It comes about as a consequence of “the learner’s experience and interaction with the world”, and this interaction is understood as an individual process.

Behavioral Learning Theory:

At the core of his radical behaviorism is Skinner’s belief that learning can be understood, explained, and predicted entirely on the basis of observable events, namely, the behavior of the learner along with its environmental antecedents and consequences. The emphasis in this theory on the behavior of the learner also contributed to concepts such as behavioral objectives and the importance of practice in instruction. Finally, behavioral theory influenced early conceptions of instructional feedback.

Cognitive Information-Processing Theory:

Like behavioral theory, information processing theory regards the environment as playing an important role in learning. Where information processing theory differs from behavioral theory, however, is in its assumption of internal processes within the learner that explain learning. To assist learners in processing information, practitioners have incorporated strategies into their instructional designs that direct attention, facilitate encoding and retrieval, and provide practice in a variety of contexts. Finally, providing many different kinds of examples or problems in different contexts can help learners to apply the knowledge they are requiring to situations in which it is relevant.

Situated Learning Theory:

As a currently emerging view, situated learning or situated cognition theory is regarded by its proponents as a work in process. Unlike behavioral and information processing theory, situated learning theory relies more on social and cultural determinants of learning than it does on individual psychology. The influence of situated learning theory is also being felt in designs for anchored instruction.

Gagne’s Theory of Instruction:

Robert M. Gagne was concerned primarily with instruction and how what is known about learning can be systematically related to the design of instruction that is based primarily on two foundations: cognitive information processing theory and Gagne’s own observations of effective teachers in the classroom. The application of Gagne’s theory is often a highly analytical affair, and it is therefore possible to lose sight of the overall context for learning while dealing with all the details of instruction.

It looks like that these theories are depended on each other and refined each other.

2. Chapters in this section present two contrasting epistemic stances: positivist and relativist. However, a third stance, the contextualist or hermeneutical, is also widely recognized. This stance falls somewhere between the strictly objectivist/positivist beliefs about knowing and the purely subjectivist/relativist stance. While designers and educators with a positivist stance generally apply behaviorist principles to the design and development of instruction, those with either a contextualist or relativist epistemological framework employ constructivist theories and methods. However, relativists ascribe to radical constructivist approaches, while contextualists draw upon social constructivist theories and models. Based on what you’ve read about positivist and relativist epistemologies, as well as behaviorist and constructivist approaches, try to more fully describe a contextualist epistemology. How might it differ from either a relativist or positivist stance, and how might social constructivism differ from either behaviorist or radical constructivist approached to learning and instruction?

Epistemological Perspectives	Design Frameworks	Design Practices
Positivism    Knowledge exists independent of the learner   There is an absolute truth	Objectivism Transfer knowledge from outside to inside the learner   Arrange conditions to promote specific goals    Knowledge engineered externally	Instructional Design Classroom  Directed Teacher directing; learner receiving   Goal pdetermined Objectives defined    Activities, materials, assessment teacher-driven Products given to teacher for assessment
Relativism   Knowledge is constructed by the learner    Truth is contextual	Constructivism  Guide the learner in constructing knowledg  Provide a rich context for negotiation and meaning construction  Knowledge constructed internally	Constructional Design Environment Learner-centered Teacher facilitating; learner controlling Learning goals negotiated  Learning problems and contexts authentic Activities, materials, assessment context-driven and individually constructed Artifacts shared and reflected on, collectively and individually

Inasmuch as positivists believe that knowledge exists independent of the individual learner, it follows that they generally employ instructional methods designed to transmit knowledge, so as to help individuals “learn” or duplicate it. Conversely, inasmuch as relativists believe that knowledge is not absolute but rather what the individual constructs, they typically rely on instructional methods that are intended to promote the judgments and evaluations that facilitate personal interpretations and refine understanding. In this way, contextualists should between positivism and relativism, which agree that knowledge and the learner are dependent of each other and truth is contextual.

3. Differing epistemic stances lead to differing approaches to learning and instruction, and ultimately to problem-solving. Explain differences in problem-solving when approached from behaviorist and constructivist perspectives. How do the approaches differ in both the nature of the problem to be solved and in facilitating the problem solving process? Finally, what effect might these differences have on learner motivation?

Behaviorists believe that learning is mediated by relationships among external stimuli, overt responses, and reinforcement principles. For constructivists, objects and events have no absolute meaning; rather, the individual interprets each and constructs meaning based on individual experience and evolved beliefs. Comparing these two forms of way, I conclude that behaviorists focus on external relationship more than solving problem itself, while constructivists focus on solving practical problem. Maybe the difference is after solving problem and during the solving problem.

Motivation refers to a person’s desire to pursue a goal or perform a task, which is manifested by choice of goals and effort in pursuing the goal. According to this explanation, behaviorists have an external motivation and constructivists have an internal motivation I think.