Section 2

1. Epistemology (the study of what and how we come to know) is discussed in multiple chapters in this section. Distinguish epistemology from instructional methods or theories. What are the differences between theories, methods, or models of learning and epistemologies or underlying beliefs about ways of knowing?

Part A

Epistemology is the branch of philosophy that is concerned with the nature of knowledge and understanding—their foundations, assumptions, and validity. Inasmuch as positivists believe that knowledge exists independent of the individual learner, it follows that they generally employ instructional methods designed to transmit knowledge, so as to help individuals “learn” or duplicate it. Conversely, inasmuch as relativists believe that knowledge is not absolute but rather what the individual constructs, they typically rely on instructional methods that are intended to promote the judgments and evaluations that facilitate personal interpretations and refine understanding. It is apparent that different epistemologies have different psychological frameworks, which in turn have different implications for instructional design. By design, instructional materials and methods should reflect beliefs and evidence about nature of learning and understanding in ways that are consistent with key foundations and assumptions.

Part B 

In most psychological theories, learning is defined as “a persisting change in human performance or performance potential”, with performance potential referring to the fact that what is learned might not always be exhibited immediately. Learning is defined further by now it is thought to occur. It comes about as a consequence of “the learner’s experience and interaction with the world”, and this interaction is understood as an individual process.

Behavioral Learning Theory:

At the core of his radical behaviorism is Skinner’s belief that learning can be understood, explained, and predicted entirely on the basis of observable events, namely, the behavior of the learner along with its environmental antecedents and consequences. The emphasis in this theory on the behavior of the learner also contributed to concepts such as behavioral objectives and the importance of practice in instruction. Finally, behavioral theory influenced early conceptions of instructional feedback.

Cognitive Information-Processing Theory:

Like behavioral theory, information processing theory regards the environment as playing an important role in learning. Where information processing theory differs from behavioral theory, however, is in its assumption of internal processes within the learner that explain learning. To assist learners in processing information, practitioners have incorporated strategies into their instructional designs that direct attention, facilitate encoding and retrieval, and provide practice in a variety of contexts. Finally, providing many different kinds of examples or problems in different contexts can help learners to apply the knowledge they are requiring to situations in which it is relevant.

Situated Learning Theory:

As a currently emerging view, situated learning or situated cognition theory is regarded by its proponents as a work in process. Unlike behavioral and information processing theory, situated learning theory relies more on social and cultural determinants of learning than it does on individual psychology. The influence of situated learning theory is also being felt in designs for anchored instruction.

Gagne’s Theory of Instruction:

Robert M. Gagne was concerned primarily with instruction and how what is known about learning can be systematically related to the design of instruction that is based primarily on two foundations: cognitive information processing theory and Gagne’s own observations of effective teachers in the classroom. The application of Gagne’s theory is often a highly analytical affair, and it is therefore possible to lose sight of the overall context for learning while dealing with all the details of instruction.

It looks like that these theories are depended on each other and refined each other.

2. Chapters in this section present two contrasting epistemic stances: positivist and relativist. However, a third stance, the contextualist or hermeneutical, is also widely recognized. This stance falls somewhere between the strictly objectivist/positivist beliefs about knowing and the purely subjectivist/relativist stance. While designers and educators with a positivist stance generally apply behaviorist principles to the design and development of instruction, those with either a contextualist or relativist epistemological framework employ constructivist theories and methods. However, relativists ascribe to radical constructivist approaches, while contextualists draw upon social constructivist theories and models. Based on what you’ve read about positivist and relativist epistemologies, as well as behaviorist and constructivist approaches, try to more fully describe a contextualist epistemology. How might it differ from either a relativist or positivist stance, and how might social constructivism differ from either behaviorist or radical constructivist approached to learning and instruction?

Epistemological Perspectives	Design Frameworks	Design Practices
Positivism    Knowledge exists independent of the learner   There is an absolute truth	Objectivism Transfer knowledge from outside to inside the learner   Arrange conditions to promote specific goals    Knowledge engineered externally	Instructional Design Classroom  Directed Teacher directing; learner receiving   Goal pdetermined Objectives defined    Activities, materials, assessment teacher-driven Products given to teacher for assessment
Relativism   Knowledge is constructed by the learner    Truth is contextual	Constructivism  Guide the learner in constructing knowledg  Provide a rich context for negotiation and meaning construction  Knowledge constructed internally	Constructional Design Environment Learner-centered Teacher facilitating; learner controlling Learning goals negotiated  Learning problems and contexts authentic Activities, materials, assessment context-driven and individually constructed Artifacts shared and reflected on, collectively and individually

Inasmuch as positivists believe that knowledge exists independent of the individual learner, it follows that they generally employ instructional methods designed to transmit knowledge, so as to help individuals “learn” or duplicate it. Conversely, inasmuch as relativists believe that knowledge is not absolute but rather what the individual constructs, they typically rely on instructional methods that are intended to promote the judgments and evaluations that facilitate personal interpretations and refine understanding. In this way, contextualists should between positivism and relativism, which agree that knowledge and the learner are dependent of each other and truth is contextual.

3. Differing epistemic stances lead to differing approaches to learning and instruction, and ultimately to problem-solving. Explain differences in problem-solving when approached from behaviorist and constructivist perspectives. How do the approaches differ in both the nature of the problem to be solved and in facilitating the problem solving process? Finally, what effect might these differences have on learner motivation?

Behaviorists believe that learning is mediated by relationships among external stimuli, overt responses, and reinforcement principles. For constructivists, objects and events have no absolute meaning; rather, the individual interprets each and constructs meaning based on individual experience and evolved beliefs. Comparing these two forms of way, I conclude that behaviorists focus on external relationship more than solving problem itself, while constructivists focus on solving practical problem. Maybe the difference is after solving problem and during the solving problem.

Motivation refers to a person’s desire to pursue a goal or perform a task, which is manifested by choice of goals and effort in pursuing the goal. According to this explanation, behaviorists have an external motivation and constructivists have an internal motivation I think.